Compendium of Presence Measures


Joy van Baren and Wijnand IJsselsteijn

Copyright 2004 & 2005, IST FET OMNIPRES project
Eindhoven University of Technology


Contents


Subjective Measures

Questionnaires

Name
Description
Primary Source
Barfield et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 2-3 itemsBarfield, W., & Weghorst, S. (1993). The sense of presence within virtual environments: A conceptual framework. In G. Salvendy & M. Smith (Eds), Human-computer interaction: Applications and case studies (pp.699-704). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Cho et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 4 itemsCho, D., Park, J., Kim, G., Hong, S., Han, S., & Lee, S. (2003). Dichotomy of presence elements: The where and what. Proceedings of the IEEE Virtual Reality 2003, 273-274. [pdf, 132KB]
Dinh et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 14 itemsDinh, H. Q., Walker, N., Song, C., Kobayashi, A., & Hodges L.F. (1999). Evaluating the importance of multi-sensory input on memory and the sense of presence in virtual environments. Proceedings of the IEEE Virtual Reality 1999, 222-228. [doc, 420 KB]
Gerhard et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 19 itemsGerhard, M., Moore, D., & Hobbs, D. (2001). Continuous presence in collaborative virtual environments: Towards the evaluation of a hybrid avatar-agent model for user representation. In A. de Antonio, R. Aylett, & D. Ballin (Eds.): Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents, pp. 137-153, Madrid, Spain. [pdf, 320 KB]
Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ)Physical presence, 75 itemsSchubert, T., Friedmann, F., & Regenbrecht, H. (2001). The experience of presence: Factor analytic insights. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 10, 266-281.
ITC Sense of Presence INventory (ITC-SOPI)Physical presence, 44 itemsLessiter, J., Freeman, J., Keogh, E., Davidoff, J. (2001). A cross-media presence questionnaire: The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 10, 282-298. [pdf, 308 KB]
Kim & Biocca QuestionnairePhysical presence, 8 itemsKim, T., & Biocca, F. (1997). Telepresence via television: Two dimensions of telepresence may have different connections to memory and persuasion. Journal of computer-mediated communication, 3 (2).[html]
Krauss et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 42 itemsKrauss, M., Scheuchenpflug, R., Piechulla, W., & Zimmer, A. (2001). Measurement of presence in virtual environments. In A. Zimmer, K. Lange, K.-H. Bäuml, R. Loose, R. Scheuchenpflug, O. Tucha, H. Schnell & R. Findl (Eds), Experimentelle Psychologie. Lengerich: Pabst Science Publishers. [pdf, 320 KB]
MEC Spatial Presence Questionnaire (MECSPQ)Physical presence, 2 x 8 itemsVorderer, P, Wirth, W., Gouveia, F. R., Biocca, F., Saari, T., Jäncke, F., Böcking, S., Schramm, H., Gysbers, A., Hartmann, T., Klimmt, C., Laarni, J., Ravaja, N., Sacau, A., Baumgartner, T. & Jäncke, P. (2004). MEC Spatial Presence Questionnaire (MECSPQ): Short Documentation and Instructions for Application. Report to the European Community, Project Presence: MEC (IST-2001-37661). [pdf, 217 KB]
Murray et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 5 itemsMurray, C., Arnold, P., & Thornton, B. (2000). Presence accompanying induced hearing loss: Implications for immersive virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9, 137-148.
Nichols et al. QuestionnairePhysical presence, 9 itemsNichols, S., Haldane, C., & Wilson , J. R. (2000) Measurement of presence and its consequences in virtual environments. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 52, 471-491.
Object Presence Questionnaire (OPQ)Physical presence, adaptation of PQStevens, B., Jerrams-Smith, J., Heathcote, D., & Callear, D. (2002). Putting the virtual into reality: Assessing object-presence with projection-augmented models. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 11, 79-92.[pdf, 227 KB]
Presence Questionnaire (PQ)Physical presence, 19 itemsWitmer, B. G., & Singer, M. J. (1998). Measuring presence in virtual environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7, 225-240. [pdf, 100KB]
Questionnaire on Presence and RealismPhysical presence, 10 itemsParent, A. (1998). A virtual environment task analysis workbook for the creation and evaluation of virtual art exhibits. Technical Report NRC 41557 ERB-1056, National Research Council Canada. [pdf, 320 KB]
Reality Judgment and Presence QuestionnairePhysical presence, 18 itemsBaños, R. M., Botella, C., Garcia-Palacios, A., Villa, H., Perpina, C., & Alcaniz, M. (2000). Presence and reality judgment in virtual environments: A unitary construct? CyberPsychology and Behaviour, 3, 327-335.
Slater-Usoh-Steed Questionnaire (SUS)Physical presence, 3-6 itemsSlater, M., Usoh, M., & Steed, A. (1994). Depth of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 3, 130-144.
Swedish User-Viewer Presence QuestionnairePhysical presence, 19 itemsLarsson, P., Västfjäll, D., & Kleiner, M. (2001a). The actor-observer effect in virtual reality presentations. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 4, 239-246.
Lombard & Ditton QuestionnairePhysical and social presence, 103 itemsLombard, M., Ditton, T. B., Crane, D., Davis, B., Gil-Egui, G., Horvath, K., et al. (2000). Measuring presence: A literature-based approach to the development of a standardized paper-and-pencil instrument. In W. IJsselsteijn, J. Freeman, & H. de Ridder (Eds), Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Presence, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
Nowak & Biocca QuestionnairePhysical and social presence, 29 itemsNowak, K.L., & Biocca, F. (2003). The effect of the agency and anthropomorphism on users’ sense of telepresence, copresence, and social presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 12, 2-35.
Schroeder et al. QuestionnairePhysical and social presence, 10 itemsSchroeder, R., Steed, A., Axelsson, A-S., Heldal, I., Abelin, A., Wideström, et al. (2001). Collaborating in networked immersive spaces: as good as being there together? Computer & Graphics, 25, 781-788.
Thie & Van Wijk QuestionnairePhysical and social presenceThie, S., & Van Wijk, J., (1998). A general theory on presence: Experimental evaluation of social virtual presence in a decision making task. Paper presented at Presence in Shared Virtual Environments Workshop, University College London, 10 - 11 June 1998. [html]
Bailenson et al. QuestionnaireSocial presence, 5 itemsBailenson, J.N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A.C., & Loomis, J.M. (2001). Equilibrium revisited: Mutual gaze and personal space in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 10, 583-598. [pdf, 640 KB]
Basdogan et al. QuestionnaireSocial presence, 8 itemsBasdogan, C., Ho, C., Srinivasan, M. A., & Slater, M. (2000) An experimental study on the role of touch in shared virtual environments. ACM Transactions on Computer Human Interaction, 7(4), 443-460. [pdf, 204 KB]
CMC Questionnaire/Social Presence and Privacy Questionnaire (SPPQ)Social presence, 17 itemsTu, C. (2002b). The impacts of text-based CMC on online social presence. The journal of interactive online learning, 1(2).
GlobalEdQuestionnaireSocial presence, 14 itemsGunawerda, C.N., & Zittle, F.J. (1997). Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment. The American journal of distance education, 11(3), 8-26.
IPO Social Presence Questionnaire (IPO-SPQ)Social presence, 17 itemsDe Greef, P., & IJsselsteijn, W. A. (2001). Social presence in a home tele-application. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4, 307-316. [html]
Networked Minds QuestionnaireSocial presence, 69 itemsBiocca, F., Harms, C., & Gregg, J. (2001) The Networked Minds measure of social presence: Pilot test of the factor structure and concurrent validity. Paper presented at Presence 2001, Philadelphia, USA, 9-11 October 2001. [pdf, 81 KB]
Para-Social Presence QuestionnaireSocial presence, 34 itemsKumar, N., & Benbasat, I. (2002). Para-social presence and communication capabilities of a website: A theoretical perspective. e-Service Journal, 1(3), 5-24. [html]
Semantic Differential TechniqueSocial presence, 24 itemsShort, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. London: John Wiley & Sons.

Continuous Assessment

Name
Description
Primary Source
Continuous AssessmentContinuous, on-line rating by means of a slider buttonIJsselsteijn, W.A., De Ridder, H., Hamberg, R., Bouwhuis, D., & Freeman, J. (1998). Perceived depth and the feeling of presence in 3DTV. Displays, 18, 207-214. [pdf, 591 KB]

Qualitative Measures

Name
Description
Primary Source
Autoconfrontation MethodContinuous post-rating aided by videomaterialRetaux, X. (2003). Presence in the environment: theories, methodologies and applications to video games. PsychNology Journal, 1(3), 284 - 310. [pdf, 236 KB]
Content AnalysisCoding of (conversation) transcriptsRourke, L., Anderson, T. Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (1999). Assessing social presence in asynchronous, text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(3), 51-70. [html]
Ethnographic ObservationVarious descriptive methods for studying sociocultural phenomenaMcGreevy, M. W. (1992). The presence of field geologists in Mars-like terrain. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 1, 375 - 403.
Experience Sampling Method (ESM)Repeated, prompted assessment in a realistic environmentGaggioli, A., Bassi, M., & Delle Fave, A. (2003). Quality of Experience in Virtual Environments. In G. Riva, F. Davide, & W.A. IJsselsteijn (Eds) Being There: Concepts, Effects and Measurements of User Presence in Synthetic Environments. Amsterdam: IOS Press. [pdf, 196 KB]
Focus Group ExplorationOrganized discussion in small groups Freeman, J., & Avons, S.E. (2000). Focus group exploration of presence through advanced broadcast services. Proceedings of the SPIE, 3959, 530-164. [pdf, 80 KB]
Free-Format Self ReportsRetrospective description of an experienceTurner, S., Turner, P., Caroll, F., O'Neill, S., Benyon, D., McCall, R., et al. (2003). Re-creating the Botanics: Towards a sense of place in virtual environments. Paper presented at the 3rd UK Environmental Psychology Conference, Aberdeen, 23-25 June 2003. [pdf, 420 KB]
Interaction AnalysisSystematic analysis of action, aided by videomaterialSpagnolli, A., Varotto, D., & Mantovani, G. (2003). An ethnographic, action-based approach to human experience in virtual environments. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 59, 797-822. [pdf, 604 KB]
InterviewAsking open questions in an un- or semistructured conversationMurray, C., Arnold, P., & Thornton, B. (2000). Presence accompanying induced hearing loss: Implications for immersive virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9, 137-148.
Presence ProbeVarious probes eliciting description of sense of placeMcCall, R., O'Neill, S., Carroll, F., & Benyon, D. (2004). The Presence Probe. Paper presented at the Workshop on Designing and Evaluating Virtual Reality Systems, University of Notthingham, UK.
Repertory Grid AnalysisMethod for exploring personal constructsSteed, A., & McDonnell, J. (2003). Experiences with repertory grid analysis for investigating effectiveness of virtual environments. Paper presented at Presence 2003, Aalborg, Denmark, 6-8 October 2003. [pdf, 138 KB]
Thinking AloudVerbalization of thought processes and feelings during an experienceTurner, P., McGregor, I., Turner, S., & Carroll, F. (2003). Evaluating soundscapes as a means of creating a sense of place. In E. Brazil, & B. Shinn-Cunningham (Eds), Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Auditory Display, 148-151. [pdf, 792 KB]

Psychophysical Measures

Name
Description
Primary Source
Cross-Modality Matching (CMM)Equalling responses in different modalitiesWelch, R. B. (1997). The presence of aftereffects. In G. Salvendy, M. J. Smith, & R. J. Koubek (Eds). Designs of computing systems: Cognitive considerations (pp. 271-276). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Free-Modulus Magnitude EstimationFree assignment of values to stimuliSnow, M. P., & Williges, R. C. (1998). Empirical models based on free-modulus magnitude estimation of perceived presence in virtual environments. Human Factors, 40, 386-402.
Paired ComparisonComparing the impact of pairs of stimuliWelch, R. B., Blackmon, T. T., Liu, A., Mellers, B. A., & Stark, L. W. (1996). The effects of pictorial realism, delay of visual feedback, and observer interactivity on the subjective sense of presence. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 5, 263-273.
Virtual Reality Turing TestDiscriminating between real and virtual environmentsSchloerb, D. W. (1995). A quantitative measure of telepresence. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 4, 64-80.

Subjective Corroborative Measures

Name
Description
Primary Source
Breaks in Presence (BIPs)Reported transitions between the real and the virtual worldSlater, M., & Steed, A. (2000). A virtual presence counter. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9, 413-434. [pdf, 283 KB]
Duration EstimationSubjective experience of elapsed timeIJsselsteijn, W., De Kort, Y., & Bierhoff, I. (2001). Duration Estimation and Presence. Paper presented at Presence 2001, Philadelphia, USA, 9-11 October 2001.
Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ)Questionnaire assessing simulator sickness, 16 itemsKennedy, R. S., Lane, N. E., Berbaum, K. S., & Lilienthal, M. G. (1993). Simulator sickness questionnaire: An enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3(3),203-220.
Memory Characteristic Questionnaire (MCQ)Questionnaire assessing qualitative differences of experiences in memory, 21 itemsHullfish, K. C., (1996). Virtual reality monitoring: How real is virtual reality? Master’s thesis, University of Washington, USA. [rtf, 2 MB]
Attention/AwarenessMeasures based on selective attentionDarken, R. P., Bernatovich, D., Lawson, J., & Peterson, B. (1999). Quantitative measures of presence in virtual environments: The roles of attention and spatial comprehension. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 2, 337-347.
Spatial MemoryThe amount of spatial information that is remembered from the VEDarken, R. P., Bernatovich, D., Lawson, J., & Peterson, B. (1999). Quantitative measures of presence in virtual environments: The roles of attention and spatial comprehension. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 2, 337-347.
Spatial Memory Awareness StatesQuestionnaire assessing different memory awareness statesMania, K., Troscianko, T., Hawkes, R., & Chalmers, A. (2003). Fidelity metrics for virtual environment simulations based on spatial memory awareness states. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 12, 296-310.
Gravity-Referenced Eye Level (GREL)Subjective estimate of spatial orientationNemire, K., Jacoby, R. H., & Ellis, S. R. (1994). Simulation fidelity of a virtual environment display. Human Factors, 36, 79-93.
Subjective Tilt AngleMeasure based on observers' subjective coordinate axisHatada, T., Sakata, H., & Kusaka, H. (1980). Psychophysical analysis of the sensation of reality. SMPTE Journal, 89, 560-569.

Objective Corroborative Measures

Psychophysiological Measures

Name
Description
Primary Source
Cardiovascular MeasuresMeasures associated with heart rate and blood pressureDillon, C., Keogh, E., Freeman, J., & Davidoff, J. (2000). Aroused and immersed: The psychophysiology of presence. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Presence. Eindhoven, The Netherlands. [html]
Skin MeasuresMeasures associated with skin conductance and skin temperatureMeehan, M., Insko, B., Whitton, M., & Brooks, F. P. (2001). Physiological measures of presence in virtual environments. In Proceedings of 4th International Workshop on Presence. Philadelphia, USA, 21-23 May, 2001. [pdf, 756 KB]
Ocular MeasuresMeasures associated with the eyes, e.g. eye tracking, pupil responseLaarni, J., Ravaja, N., & Saari, T. (2003). Using eye tracking and psychophysiological methods to study spatial presence. In Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Presence. Aalborg, Denmark, 6-8 October 2003. [pdf, 30 KB]
Facial Electromyography (EMG)Measurement of potential differences on the skin surface as indication of emotionRavaja, N. (2002). Presence-related influences of a small talking facial image on psychophysiological measures of emotion and attention. In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Presence. Porto, Portugal, October 9-11 2002.

Neural Correlates

Name
Description
Primary Source
Electroencephalogram (EEG)Recording of electrical activity from the scalpSchlögl, A., Slater, M., & Pfurtscheller, G. (2002). Presence Research and EEG. In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Presence. Porto, Portugal, October 9-11 2002. [pdf, 63 KB]
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)Measuring changes in the blood flow to the brainHoffman, H.G., Richards, T., Coda, B., Richards, A., & Sharar, S.R. (2003). The illusion of presence in immersive virtual reality during and fMRI brain scan. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 6, 127-131. [pdf, 316 KB]

Behavioural Measures

Name
Description
Primary Source
Facial ExpressionObservation of facial expressionHuang, M., & Alessi, N. (1999). Presence as an emotional experience. In J. D Westwood, H. M. Hoffman, R. A. Robb, & D. Stredney, (Eds). Medicine meets virtual reality: The convergence of physical and informational technologies options for a new era in healthcare. Amsterdam: IOS Press. [html]
NullingMeasure based on counterbalancing of stimuliProthero, J., & Parker, D. (2003). A unified approach to presence and motion sickness. In L. Hettinger & M. Haas (Eds). Virtual and adaptive environments: Applications, implications, and performance issues (pp. 47-66). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Postural ResponsesMeasurement of body movements in reaction to stimuliFreeman, J., Avons, S., Meddis, R., Pearson, D., & IJsselsteijn, W. (2000). Using behavioural realism to estimate presence: A study of the utility of postural responses to motion stimuli. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9, 149-164.
Pointing (Conflicting Cues)Measure based on conflicting real and virtual cuesSlater, M., Usoh, M., Chrysanthou, Y. (1995). The influence of dynamic shadows on presence in immersive virtual environments. In M. Goebel (Ed.). Proceedings of the 2nd Eurographics Workshop on Virtual Reality. Monte Carlo, Monaco, January 1995. [pdf, 56 KB]
Reflex ResponsesObservation of reflex responses in reaction to stimuliNichols, S., Haldane, C., & Wilson , J. R. (2000) Measurement of presence and its consequences in virtual environments. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 52, 471-491.
Social ResponsesObservation of socially conditioned behaviours in reaction to social virtual encountersBailenson, J.N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A.C., & Loomis, J.M., (2003). Interpersonal distance in immersive virtual environments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1-15. [pdf, 804 KB]

Task Performance Measures

Name
Description
Primary Source
Completion Time and Error RateMeasuring the time taken to complete a task and the number of errors made in that taskBasdogan, C., Ho, C., Srinivasan, M. A., & Slater, M. (2000). An experimental study on the role of touch in shared virtual environments. ACM Transactions on Computer Human Interaction, 7(4), 443-460. [pdf, 204 KB]
Number of ActionsCounting the number of actions or steps needed to complete a taskSlater, M., Linakis, V., Usoh, M., & Kooper, R., (1996). Immersion, presence, and performance in virtual environments: An experiment with tri-dimensional chess. In M. Green (Ed), ACM Virtual Reality Software and Technology (pp. 163-172), 1-4 July 1996. [html]
Secondary Task PerformanceAdding a secondary task and measuring performanceNichols, S., Haldane, C., & Wilson , J. R. (2000) Measurement of presence and its consequences in virtual environments. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 52, 471-491.
TransferThe degree to which a skill is transferred to a real-world situationYoungblut, C., & Perrin, B. M. (2002). Investigating the relationship between presence and performance in virtual environments. Paper presented at IMAGE 2002 Conference, Arizona.


Measure Count: 69
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